"धर्म" का संशोधनहरू बिचको अन्तर

कुनै सम्पादन सारांश छैन
सा r2.7.3) (रोबोट ले थप्दै: vep:Religii; अंगराग परिवर्तन
पङ्क्ति १:
'''धर्म''' भन्नाले दैवि शक्ति, परमात्मा अथवा अदृश्य शक्तिमा गरिने विश्वास र त्यस्ता शक्तिहरू सँग सम्बन्धित नैतिक आचरण, व्यवहरार, मूल्य तथा मान्यता, सङ्घ संस्था, तथा पुरातन बिधिहरू पर्दछन्। कहिलेकाहिं आस्था अथवा विश्वास जस्ता शव्द पनि धर्मकै अर्थमा प्रयोग गरिन्छ। बृहद अर्थमा कसैले धर्मलाई
[[Imageचित्र:De zielenvisserij - Fishing for souls (Adriaen Pietersz. van de Venne).jpg|300px|thumb|right|फिसरस् अफ म्यान; [[एड्रिएन भ्यान डे भेन्ने]] ([[1614]])को तेलचित्र ]]
 
ब्रम्हाण्ड र मानवको संबन्ध बारे सम्पूर्ण उत्तर मान्ने गर्दछन्। धर्म भनेको जिव वा मानवको स्वभाविक गुण हो । मानव सँस्कृतीको विकाश सँगै धर्मको अर्थ समाज र ब्यक्ति अनुसार फरक फरक पाइन्छ।
पङ्क्ति ७:
 
संसारमा मानिसहरू बिभिन्न किशिमका धर्महरू पालना गर्दछन्। ती मध्ये जनसंख्याको हिसाबले सबैभन्दा प्रमुख धर्महरू हुन् : ईसाई, ईस्लाम, हिन्दू, बौद्ध, यहुदी र अन्य धर्महरू।
== शब्दको उत्पत्ति ==
[[Imageचित्र:Religious symbols.png|thumb|right|बिभिन्न धार्मिक संकेतहरू]]
=== [[पश्चिमी सभ्यता|पाश्चात्य]] उत्पत्ति ===
 
अँग्रेजीमा धर्मलाई '''religion''' भनिन्छ। त्यस शब्दको उत्तपत्ति निम्न अनुसार भएको हुन सक्ने विज्ञहरू बताउँछन्।
पङ्क्ति १५:
* '''re-reading'''--[[लेटिन|ल्याटिन भाषा]]मा ''re'' (फेरी) + ''legio'' (पढ्नु), पटक् पटक धर्मिक ग्रन्थ पढ्नु पर्ने हुनाले
* '''सावधानिपूर्वक व्यवहार'''--ल्याटिन भाषामा ''relegere'' ([[सिसेरो]]को अनुबाद)
* परमात्मासँग '''पुनः सम्बन्ध''' --ल्याटिन भाषामा ''re'' (फेरी, पुनः) + ''ligare'' (जोड्नु, सम्बन्ध राख्नु)। धैरैजसो आधुनिक विज्ञहरू यो उत्पत्तिलाईनै मान्यता दिन्छन्।
* '''बन्धनमा पर्नु''' अथवा '''बन्धनमा फर्कनु'''-- '''पुनः सम्बन्ध'''को अर्को अनुबाद जसले ईश्वर प्राप्तिको कोशिसलाई जनाउने गर्दछ। यो अनुमान [[अगस्टिन]] बाट सुरू भएको हुनु पर्दछ। यो अनुमान धर्मका आलोचकहरू बिचमा निकै प्रचलि छ र धेरैजसो आधुनिक धर्महरूले यो अनुमानलाई धर्म बिरूद्ध भएको मान्दछन्।
* '''समुहमा जोडिनु'''-- ल्याटिनमा ''res'' (सम्बन्धित) + ''legere'' (भेलाहुनु)। यसले धर्मलाई संगठनको रूपमा परिभाषित गर्ने गर्दछ।
 
=== [[पूर्वीय सभ्यता|पूर्वीय]] उत्पत्ति ===
===धर्म र विज्ञान===
धर्मका समर्थकहरूका अनुसार ज्ञानको श्रोत भनेका धार्मिक गुरू, धार्मिक ग्रन्थ, अथवा आत्मज्ञान हुन्। धर्मको कुनै सिमा हुँदैन र यसले हरेक प्रश्नको उत्तर दिने कोशिस गर्दछ। केही धार्मिक ब्यक्तिहरूका अनुसार यस्तो तरिका बाट प्राप्त ज्ञन नै सत्य ज्ञान हो जुन गलत सावित गर्न सकिंदैन। धार्मिक ज्ञान धर्म तथा सम्प्रदाय अनुसार अलग अलग हुन सक्छ।
 
तर, [[विज्ञान]]ले संसारको सक्षम अध्ययन गरेर ज्ञान प्राप्त गर्दछ र यसले मात्र ब्रम्हाण्डको बारेमा सम्पूर्ण प्रश्नहरूको उत्तर दिन सक्तछ। यसले देखिएका प्रमाणका आधारमा नयाँ सिद्धान्तहरू प्रतिपादन गर्ने गर्दछ। सबै बैज्ञानिक ज्ञानहरू अस्थाई हुँन्छन् जुन पछिल्ला गहन अध्ययन अनुसार परिमार्जन तथा पुनरावलोकन गर्न सकिन्छ। बिज्ञानले भौतिक रूपमा मात्र नभैकन अभौतिक बिषयहरू जस्तै [[अर्थशास्त्र]], [[भाषा]], [[मनोविज्ञान]] आदि पनि परिभाषित गर्न सक्तछ।
 
पूर्वकालका धेरै बैज्ञानिकहरूले धर्ममा निकै आस्था राख्ने गर्दथे र धर्म अनि बिज्ञनका बिचमा सम्बन्ध स्थापित गर्ने कोशिस गर्दथे। जस्तै, [[आइज्याक न्यूटन|न्यूटन]]ले ग्रुत्वाकर्सणको कारणले ग्रहहरूले सूर्यको परिक्रमा गर्दछन् भने। तर त्यस्तो हुनुमा ईश्वरलाई माने। [[रोमन क्याथोलिक चर्च]]ले कुन बैज्ञानिक सिद्धान्त मान्ने र कुन नमान्ने अधिकार आफूसँग सुरक्षित भएको बताउँछ। जस्तै, [[ब्रुनो]]लाई अमान्य बैज्ञानिक सिद्धान्त बनाएका कारणले जिउँदै जलाईएको थियो। [[ग्यालिलिओ]]लाई पृथ्वीले सूर्यको परिक्रमा गर्दछ भन्ने उनको सिद्धान्तलाई फिर्ता लिन बाध्य बनाईएको थियो। आजकाल उक्त चर्चले धेरैजसो स्थापित बैज्ञानिक सिद्धान्तहरू मान्ने गर्दछ।
 
संगठित धर्महरू तथा बैज्ञानिकहरूका बिचमा बिभिन्न समयमा भएका केही मतभेदहरू यस प्रकार छन्।
* पृथ्वीले सूर्यको परिक्रमा गर्दछ या सूर्यले पृथ्वीको ?
* के पृथ्वी केही हजार वर्ष पुरानो हो या करोडौं वर्ष पुरानो ?
पङ्क्ति ३५:
* के आईन्स्टाईनको रिलेटिभिटि सिद्धान्त ठीक छ ?
 
=== धर्म र अध्यात्म ===
धेरैजसो धर्मका अनुयायीहरू धर्म र अध्यात्ममा खासै भिन्नता देख्दैनन्। तर केही व्यक्तिहरू यी दुई बिच ठूलो भिन्नता भएको तर्क गर्दछन्। तिनीहरूले अध्यात्मलाई ईश्वर माथिको आस्थाको रूपमा मात्र मान्दछन् र धार्मिक संगठन तथा त्यसका क्रियाकलापहरू अध्यात्म अन्तरगत नपर्ने तर्क गर्दछन्। त्यस्ता व्यक्तिहरू आफ्नो आस्थालाई धर्मको रूपमा भन्दा पनि अध्यात्मको रूपमा ब्याख्या गर्दछन् यसले गर्दा उनिहरू कुनै संगठन अथवा समुदायको सदस्य नभएको जनाउँदछ।
 
== प्रमुख धर्महरू ==
संसारमा हाल प्रचलनमा रहेका प्रमुख धर्म तथा त्यसका अनुयायी संख्याहरू
* [[क्रिश्चियन धर्म]] 2.1 अरब
पङ्क्ति ५४:
 
==Philosophy and metaphysics===
In between the doctrines of religion and science, stands the [[philosophy|philosophical]] perspective of [[cosmology (metaphysics)|metaphysical cosmology]]. This ancient field of study seeks to draw [[logic]]al conclusions about the nature of the universe, humanity, and god. One important philosophical tool that attempts to resolve the conflict between religion and science is [[Occam's razor]], which was originally developed by [[William of Occam]] to support religion but is now often used in the [[philosophy of science]] to support science. Occam's razor cuts both ways.
One should also take note of the related philosophic field of [[epistemology]] which questions the very nature of how we come to understand and accept that a belief is true or false, such as belief in Darwinian [[evolution]] as compared to [[Christian]] [[young earth creationism]] and vice versa.
[[Imageचित्र:Plato's allegory of the cave.jpg|thumb|205px|left|Illustration of [[Plato's allegory of the cave|Plato's cave]]]]
 
=== Esotericism and mysticism ===
:[[Imageचित्र:7BrahmanMH.jpg|thumb|105px|Man [[Meditation|meditating]]]]
 
[[Mysticism]], in contrast with philosophy and metaphysics, denies that [[logic]] is the most important method of gaining enlightenment. Rather physical disciplines such as [[yoga]], [[starvation]], self-[[strangulation]], or whirling (in the case of the [[Sufi]] [[dervish]]es) or the use of [[Psychoactive drug]]s such as [[LSD]], lead to higher states of consciousness that logic can never hope to grasp.
 
[[Mysticism]] ("to conceal") is the pursuit of communion with, or conscious awareness of [[ultimate reality]], the [[divine]], [[Spirituality|spiritual truth]], or [[God]] through direct, personal experience (intuition or insight) rather than rational thought. Mystics believe in the existence of realities beyond perceptual or intellectual apprehension that are central to being and directly accessible through personal experience. They believe that such experience is a genuine and important source of knowledge.
 
[[Esotericism]] claims to be more sophisticated than religion, to rely on intellectual understanding rather than faith, and to improve on philosophy in its emphasis on techniques of psycho-spiritual transformation ([[esoteric cosmology]]). [[Esotericism]] refers to "hidden" knowledge available only to the advanced, privileged, or initiated, as opposed to [[Exotericism|exoteric knowledge]], which is public. It applies especially to [[spirituality|spiritual]] practices. The [[mystery religion]]s of [[ancient Greece]] and the modern religion of [[Scientology]] are examples of [[Esotericism]].
 
[[Imageचित्र:Samsara.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Hinduism]] focuses that every living being is an eternally existing, individual spirit. While changing its body at every moment, this soul passes from one form of body to another.]]
 
=== Spirituality ===
Members of an organized religion may not see any significant difference between religion and spirituality. Or they may see a distinction between the mundane, earthly aspects of their religion and its spiritual dimension.
 
Some individuals draw a strong distinction between religion and spirituality. They may see spirituality as a belief in ideas of religious significance (such as God, the Soul, or Heaven), but not feel bound to the bureaucratic structure and creeds of a particular organized religion. They choose the term ''[[spirituality]]'' rather than religion to describe their form of belief, perhaps reflecting a disillusionment with organized religion (see [[#Religion in modernity|Religion in modernity]]), and a movement towards a more "modern" — more tolerant, and more intuitive — form of religion. These individuals may reject organized religion because of historical acts by religious organizations, such as [[Islamic terrorism]] or the [[Spanish Inquisition]].
 
[[Mahatma Gandhi]] who was born a [[Hindu]] wrote the following about religion in उनका autobiography ''[[The Story of My Experiments with Truth]]''
पङ्क्ति ८८:
Later in उनका life when he was asked whether he was a [[Hindu]], he replied:
 
:"Yes I am. I am also a Christian, a Muslim, a Buddhist and a Jew."
 
=== Myth ===
[[Imageचित्र:Babshrinenight.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Shrine of the Báb]] in [[Haifa]], Israel]]
The word "myth" has two main meanings, according to the [[Merriam-Webster]] Online Dictionary:
# a usually traditional story of ostensibly historical events that serves to unfold part of the world view of a people or explain a practice, belief, or natural phenomenon
# a person or thing having only an imaginary or unverifiable existence
 
Ancient [[polytheism|polytheistic]] religions, such as those of [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], and [[Scandinavia]], are categorized under the heading of [[mythology]]. Religions of pre-industrial peoples, or [[culture]]s in development, are similarly called myths in the [[anthropology of religion]]. Mythology can be a term used pejoratively by both religious and non-religious people. But by defining another person's religious stories and beliefs as mythology, one implies that they are less real than one's own religious stories and beliefs.
 
The term "myth" in sociology, however, has a non-pejorative meaning. There "myth" is defined as stories that are important for the group and not necessarily untrue. Examples include the death and [[resurrection]] of [[Jesus]], which, to Christians, explains the means by which they are freed from sin, as well as being ostensibly a historical event.
 
== Approaches to the study of individual religions ==
=== Methods of studying religion subjectively (in relation to one's own beliefs) ===
These include efforts to determine the meaning and application of "sacred" texts and beliefs in the context of the student's personal worldview. This generally takes one of three forms:
 
* one's own — efforts by believers to ascertain the meaning of their own sacred text or other traditions, and to conform their thoughts and actions to the principles enunciated in those traditions. For most believers, this involves a lifetime process of study, analysis, and practice. Some faiths, such as Hasidic Judaism, emphasize adherence to a set of rules and rituals. Other faiths, such as Christianity, emphasize the internalization and application of a set of abstract principles, such as Love, Justice, or Faith. Some believers interpret their scriptures literally, and apply the text exactly as it is written. Other believers try to interpret scripture and other tradition through its context, to derive abstract principles which they may apply more directly to their lives and contexts. [[Imageचित्र:Egypt.Aswan.Mosque.01.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Mosque; Aswan, Egypt.]]
 
* another's compared to one's own — efforts by believers of one belief system attempt to describe a different belief system in terms of their own beliefs. One example of this method is in [[David Strauss|David Strauss's]] 1835 ''The Life of Jesus.'' Strauss's theological approach strikes from the [[New Testament|Biblical text]] the descriptions of [[angel]]s and [[miracle]]s which, due to उनका presupposition that supernatural events do not occur, he does not believe could have occurred. He then concludes that the stories must have been inserted by a "supernaturalist" merely trying to make an important story more convincing. In this course of उनका argument, Strauss argues that the supernaturalist who inserted the angels into the story of the birth of [[Jesus|Christ]] borrowed the heathen doctrine of angels from the Babylonians who had held the Jews in [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|captivity]]. That is, the New Testament's fabulous role for angels "is evidently a product of the influence of the Zend religion of the Persians on the Jewish mind." Due to उनका presumption that supernatural events do not occur, he dismisses the possibility that both cultures came to believe in angels independently, as a result of their own experiences and context.
 
* another's as defined by itself — efforts by believers of one belief system to understand the heart and meaning of another faith on its own terms. This very challenging approach to understanding religion presumes that each religion is a self-consistent system whereby a set of beliefs and actions depend upon each other for coherence, and can ''only'' be understood in relation to each other. This method requires the student to investigate the philosophical, emotional, religious, and social presuppositions that adherents of another religion develop and apply in their religious life, before applying their own biases, and evaluating the other faith. For instance, an individual who personally does not believe in miracles may attempt to understand why adherents of another religion believe in miracles, and then attempt to understand how the individual's belief in miracles affects their daily life. While the individual may still himself not believe in miracles, he may begin to develop an understanding of why people of other faiths choose to believe in them.
 
=== Methods of studying religion objectively (in a scientific and religiously neutral fashion) ===
There are a variety of methods employed to study religion which seek to be religiously neutral. One's interpretation of these methods depends on one's approach to the relationship between religion and science, as discussed above.
 
* '''[[Epistemological]] and [[ontological]] approaches''' to religion deal with the very nature of how one comes to accept any belief or assumption as true on its own terms and questions such matters of the nature of reality and existence of the universe and humanity. Such an approach may begin from philosophic [[first principles]] of epistemology and [[philosophic logic]] such as the [[law of non-contradiction]], the [[law of excluded middle]] and others. This is perhaps one of the strongest approaches as one's assumptions here will underline one's assumptions and subsequent approaches to analysis of all of the history, people, sciences (or pseudosciences), humanities and social sciences, texts, ideologies, literatures, emotions and experiences associated with religions.
 
* '''Historical, archeological, and literary approaches''' to religion include attempts to discover the sacred writings at the "dawn of humanity." For example, [[Max Müller]] in 1879 launched a project to translate the earliest [[sacred text]]s of [[Hinduism]] into English in the ''Sacred Books of the East.'' Müller's intent was to translate for the first time the "bright" as well as the "dark sides" of non-Christian religions into English. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe01/sbe01002.htm]
 
* '''Anthropological approaches''' include attempts to lay out the principles of [[Indigenous peoples|native tribes]] that have had little contact with [[Scientific Revolution|modern technology]] as in [[John Lubbock|John Lubbock's]] ''The Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of Man.'' [http://darwin.lib.cam.ac.uk/perl/nav?pclass=calent&pkey=7286]
 
:The term "religion" is problematic for anthropologists, and their approaches to the subject are quite varied. Some take the view that religion, particularly in less technically complex cultures, is a form of ''proto-science''--a primitive attempt to explain and predict phenomena in the natural world, similar to modern science but less advanced.
 
:However, most modern anthropologists reject this view as antiquated, ethnically and intellectually chauvinistic, and unsupported by cross-cultural evidence. [[Science]] has very specific methods and aims, while the term "religion" encompasses a huge spectrum of practices, goals, and social functions. In addition to explaining the world (natural or otherwise), religions may also provide mechanisms for maintaining social and psychological well-being, and the foundations of moral/ethical, economic, and political reasoning.
 
:While many early anthropologists attempted to catalogue and universalize these functions and their origins, modern researchers have tended to back away from such speculation, preferring a more holistic approach: The object of study is the meaning of religious traditions and practices for the practitioners themselves--religion in context--rather than formalized theories about religion in general.
 
* '''Sociological approaches''' include attempts to explain the development of the ideas of [[morality]] and [[law]], as in for example, [[Auguste Comte|Auguste Comte's]] ''Cours de philosophie positive'' hypothesizing in 1842 that people go through stages of evolution 1) obeying supernatural beings, then 2) manipulating abstract unseen forces, and finally 3) exploring more or less scientifically the social laws and practical governmental structures that work in practice. Within a sociological approach, religion is but the earliest primitive stage of discovering what is morally right and wrong in a [[civilization|civilized society]]. It is the duty of [[intelligence (trait)|intelligent]] men and women everywhere to take [[responsibility]] for shaping the society without appealing to a non-existent Divinity to discover empirically what moral concepts actually work in practice, and in the process, the shapers of society must take into account that there is no Divine authority to adjudicate between what are only the opinions of men and women. Comte wrote, in translation, "It can not be necessary to prove to anybody who reads this work that Ideas govern the world, or throw it into chaos; in other words, that all social mechanism rests upon Opinions. The great political and moral crisis that societies are now undergoing is shown by a rigid analysis to arise out of intellectual anarchy." The intellectual anarchy includes the warring oppositions among the world's religions. [http://www.forum-global.de/soc/bibliot/comte/comtepositivephilosophy.htm]
 
* '''Psychological approaches'''. The [[Psychology of religion]] involves the gathering and classification of data (usually wide ranging) and the building of the explanations of the psychological processes underlying the religious experiences and beliefs. It includes a wide variety of researches (psychoanalytical and others) : [[Sigmund Freud]] (Oedipus Complex, Illusion), [[Carl Jung]] (Universal archetypes), [[Erich Fromm]] (Desire, Need for stable frame), [[William James]] (Personal religious experience, Pragmatism), [[Alfred Adler]] (Feeling of inferiority, Perfection), [[Ludwig Feuerbach]] (Imagination, Wishes, Fear of Death), [[Gordon Alport]] (Mature religion and Immature religion), [[Erik Erikson]] (Influence on personality development), [[Rudolf Otto]] (Non-rational experience), James Leuba (Mystical experiences and drugs).
 
* '''Philosophical approaches''' include attempts to derive [[rationality|rational]] classifications of the views of the world that religions preach as in [[Immanuel Kant]]'s 1788 ''Critique of Practical Reason.'' Within a philosophical approach, the reason for a religious belief should be more important than the emotional attachment to the belief. [http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/etext04/ikcpr10.txt] And in attempting to provide a reasonable basis for morality, Kant proposed the [[categorical imperative]]: "Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." [http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/etext04/ikfpm10.txt]
 
* '''Neuroscientific approaches''' seek to explore the apparent similarities among religious views dominant in diverse cultures that have had little or no contact, why religion is found in almost every human group, and why humans accept counterintuitive statements in the name of religion. In [[neuroscience]], work by scientists such as Ramachandran and उनका colleagues from the [[University of California, San Diego]] [http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web2/Eguae.html] suggests evidence of [[brain]] circuitry in the [[temporal lobe]] associated with intense religious experiences. See also [[neurotheology]], the scientific study of the biological basis of spiritual experience.
 
* '''Sociological approaches''' include the work of [[Rodney Stark]] who has looked at the social forces that have caused religions to grow and the features of religions that have been most successful. For example, Stark, who claims to be an [[agnostic]], hypothesizes that, before Christianity became established as the state religion of Constantinople, Christianity grew rapidly because it provided a practical framework within which non-family members would provide help to other people in the community in a barter system of mutual assistance. Similarly, [[evolutionary psychology]] approaches consider the survival advantages that religion might have given to a community of hunter-gatherers, such as unifying them within a coherent social group.
 
: Critics assert that this approach is inadequate insofar as it asserts that people subscribe to religions ''merely'' because of practical advantages.
 
* '''Cognitive psychological approaches''' take a completely different approach to explaining religion. Foremost among them is [[Pascal Boyer]], whose book, ''[[Religion Explained]]'', lays out the basics of उनका theory, and attempts to refute several previous and more direct explanations for the phenomenon of religion. Religion is taken in its widest sense (from holy mountains over ancestral spirits to monotheistic deities). An explanation is offered for human religious behaviour without making a presumption, to the positive or the negative, about the actual subject matter of the religious beliefs. Essentially, the reasoning goes that religion is a side effect to the normal functioning of certain [[subconscious]] intuitive mental faculties which normally apply to physics (enabling prediction of the arc a football will take only seconds after its release, for example), and social networks (to keep track of other people's identity, history, loyalty, etc.), and a variety of others. For instance, the same mechanism that serves to link, without explaining, an event (e.g. rustling of tall grass) with a cause (the possible presence of a predator) will help to form or sustain a belief that two random events are linked, or that an unexplained event is linked to supernatural causes. The reasoning would imply that there is no direct causal link between the subject matter of a belief (e.g. whether the ancestors watch over us) and the fact that there is such a belief.
 
:Critics assert that cognitive psychological approaches are unfalsifiable and hence are unscientific speculation.
 
For a discussion of the struggle to attain objectivity in the scientific study of religion, see ''Total Truth'' by Nancy Pearcey (ISBN 15813445891-58134-458-9), who argues that some studies performed pursuant to these methods make claims beyond the realm of observable and verifiable phenomena, and are therefore neither scientific nor religiously neutral.
 
== Development of religion ==
{{main|Development of religion}}
[[Imageचित्र:Jerusalem Dome of the rock BW 1.JPG|thumb|right|250px|'''Jerusalem''' — an ancient and sacred city of key importance to [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]]]
[[Imageचित्र:Swamithoppe.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Swamithoppepathi|Pathi]]; [[Swamithoppe]], [[भारत|India]].]]
There are several models for understanding how religions develop.
* Models which view religion as untrue include:
** The "Dogma Selection Model," which holds that religions, although untrue in themselves, encode instructions or habits useful for survival, that these ideas "mutate" periodically as they are passed on, and they spread or die out in accord with their effectiveness at improving chances for survival.
** The "Opium of the Masses Model," in which "Religion in any shape or form is regarded as pernicious and deliberate falsehood, spread and encouraged by rulers and clerics in their own interests, since it is easier to control over the ignorant." -- Bertrand Russell ''Wisdom of the West'' (ISBN 05176904110-517-69041-1)
** The "Theory of Religion Model," in which religion is viewed as arising from some psychological or moral pathology in religious leaders and believers.
* Models which view religion as progressively true include:
पङ्क्ति १६१:
** The "[[Exclusivism|Exclusivist]] Models," which hold that one particular is the "One True Religion," and all others are false, so that the development of the True Religion is tied inexorably to one prophet or holy book. All other religions are seen as either distortions of the original truth or original fabrications resulting from either human ignorance or imagination, or a more devious influence, such as false prophets or [[Satan]] himself.
 
=== Religion today ===
In the late [[19th century]] and throughout most of the [[20th century]], the demographics of religion has changed a great deal.
 
पङ्क्ति १६८:
In the [[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका|United States]], [[Latin America]], and Sub-Saharan [[Africa]], by contrast, studies show that Christianity is strong and growing stronger, and many believe those areas to have become the new "heart" of Christianity. [[Islam]] is currently the fastest growing religion, and is nearly universal in many states stretching from West Africa to Indonesia, and has grown in world influence in the West. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Shintoism remain nearly universal in the Far East, and have greatly influenced spirituality, particularly in the United States. Explanations for the growth of religion in these areas include disillusionment with the perceived failures of secular western ideologies to provide an ethical and moral framework. Believers point to perceived terrors such as [[Nazism]], [[Communism]], [[Colonialism]], [[Secular Humanism]], and [[Materialism]], and the havoc wreaked by such movements around the world. Particularly vehement in this regard are Islamic fundamentalists, who view Western secularism as a serious threat to morality itself. They point to perceived decadence, high rates of divorce, crime, depression, and suicide as evidence of Western social decline, which they believe is caused by the abandonment of Faith by the West.
 
==== Modern reasons for adherence to religion ====
Typical reasons for adherence to religion include the following:
 
पङ्क्ति १८३:
* '''"Practical benefits"''': Religions may sometimes provide breadth and scale for visionary inspirations in compassion, practical charity, and moral restraint. Christianity is noted for the founding of many major universities, the creation of early hospitals, the provision of food and medical supplies to the needy, and the creation of orphanages and schools, amongst other charitable acts. Many other religions (and non-religious organisations and individuals, eg: humanistic [[Oxfam]]) have also performed equivalent or similar work.
 
==== Modern reasons for rejecting religion ====
Typical reasons for rejection of religion include the following:
 
पङ्क्ति २०१:
* '''"Cause of division and hatred"''': Some religions state that certain groups (particularly those that do not belong to the religion in question) are "inferior" or "sinful" and deserve contempt, persecution, and even death. For example, some [[Muslim]]s believe that women are inferior to men. Some [[Christian]]s share this belief. At the time of the American [[Civil War]], many Southerners used passages from the [[Bible]] to justify [[slavery]]. The Christian religion has been used as a reason to persecute and to deny the rights of homosexuals, on the basis that God disapproves of homosexuality, and by implication homosexuals [http://www.godhatesfags.com 1]. Many people believe that those who do not share their religion will be punished for their unbelief in an [[afterlife]]. There are countless examples of people of one religion or sect using religion as an excuse to murder people with different religious beliefs. To mention just a few, there was the slaughter of the [[Huguenot]]s by French [[Catholics]] in the [[Sixteenth Century]]; [[Hindu]]s and [[Muslim]]s killing each other when [[पाकिस्तान|Pakistan]] separated from India in 1947; the persecution and killing of [[Shiite]] Muslims by [[Sunni]] Muslims in Iraq and the murder of [[Protestant]]s by [[Catholics]] and vice versa in [[Ireland]], (both of these examples in the late [[Twentieth Century]]); and the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] that continues today. According to some critics of religion, these beliefs can encourage completely unnecessary conflicts and in some cases even wars. Many [[atheist]]s believe that, because of this, religion is incompatible with world peace, freedom, civil rights, equality, and good government.
 
== Approaches to relating to the beliefs of others ==
Adherents of particular religions deal with the differing doctrines and practices espoused by other religions in a variety ways. All strains of thought appear in different segments of all major world religions.
 
=== Exclusivism ===
People with exclusivist beliefs sometimes typically explain other religions as either in error, or as corruptions or counterfeits of the true faith. Examples include:
 
पङ्क्ति २१९:
Exclusivist views are more completely explored in [[chosen people]].
 
=== Inclusivism ===
People with [[inclusivism|inclusivist]] beliefs recognize some truth in all faith systems, highlighting agreements and minimizing differences, but see their own faith as in some way ultimate. Examples include:
*From Hinduism:
** A well-known Rig Vedic hymn stemming from [[Hinduism]] claims that "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously."
** [[Krishna]], incarnation or [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]], the supreme God in Hinduism, said in the [[Gita]]: In whatever way men identify with Me, in the same way do I carry out their desires; men pursue My path, O Arjuna, in all ways. ([http://vedabase.net/bg/4/11 Gita: 4:11]);
[[Imageचित्र:Krishna giridhar3.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Lord Krishna]]]]
** Krishna said: "Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make उनका faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me." ([http://vedabase.net/bg/7/21 Gita: 7:21-22])
** Another quote in the Gita states: "O Arjuna, even those devotees who worship other lesser deities (e.g., [[Devas]], for example) with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, Yajna) and Lord of the universe." ([http://vedabase.net/bg/9/23 Gita: 9:23])
पङ्क्ति २३६:
**"Among the people of the Book there are some who have faith in God and in what has been sent down to you and what was sent down to them, and who are humble before God. They do not sell God's Signs for a paltry price. Such people will have their reward with their Lord. And God is swift at reckoning." (Holy Qur'an, Surat Al 'Imran; 3:199)
**"...You will find the people most affectionate to those who have faith are those who say, 'We are Christians.' That is because some of them are priests and monks and because they are not arrogant." (Holy Qur'an, Surat al-Ma'idah; 5:82)
[[Imageचित्र:Emblem of Ayyavazhi.jpg|thumb|right|Symbol of Ayyavazhi]]
 
*From Ayyavazhi
पङ्क्ति २५०:
**[[Shoghi Effendi]], the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith states: "The fundamental principle enunciated by [[Bahá'u'lláh]], the followers of His Faith firmly believe, is that religious truth is not absolute but relative, that Divine Revelation is a continuous and progressive process, that all the great religions of the world are divine in origin, that their basic principles are in complete harmony, that their aims and purposes are one and the same, that their teachings are but facets of one truth, that their functions are complementary, that they differ only in the nonessential aspects of their doctrines, and that their missions represent successive stages in the spiritual evolution of human society." (''The Faith of Bahá'u'lláh'' in World Order, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1972-73)) [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/PDC/pdc-1.html#gr1]
 
=== Pluralism ===
{{main|Religious pluralism}}
 
पङ्क्ति २५९:
* The Christian writer Paul wrote, "God will give to each person according to what he has done. To those who by persistence in doing good seek glory, honor and immortality, he will give eternal life. But for those who are self seeking and who reject the truth and follow evil, there will be wrath and anger. There will be trouble and distress for every human being who does evil: first for the Jew, then for the Gentile; but glory, honor and peace for everyone who does good: first for the Jew, then for the Gentile. For God does not show favouritism. All who sin apart from the law will also perish apart from the law, and all who sin under the law will be judged by the law. For it is not those who hear the law who are righteous in God's sight, but it is those who obey the law who will be declared righteous. (Indeed, when Gentiles, who do not have the law, do by nature things required by the law, they are a law for themselves, even though they do not have the law, since they show that the requirements of the law are written on their hearts, their consciences also bearing witness, and their thoughts now accusing, now even defending them.)" Romans 2:6-15.
 
=== Syncretism ===
{{main|Syncretism}}
 
पङ्क्ति २६६:
[[Unitarian Universalism]] is an example of a syncretistic faith.
 
=== Universalism ===
Some believe that religion cannot be separated from other aspects of life, or believe that certain cultures did not or do not separate their religious activities from other activities in the same way that some people in modern [[Western culture|Western]] cultures do.
 
पङ्क्ति २७५:
In addition, beliefs about the [[supernatural]] or [[metaphysical]] may not presuppose a difference between any such thing as [[nature]] and non-nature, nor between science and what the most educated people believe. In the view of some historians, the pre-[[Socratic]] [[Athenian]]s saw [[science]], political [[tradition]], [[culture]], and religion as not easily distinguishable, but all part of the same body of [[knowledge]] and [[wisdom]] available to a [[community]].
 
=== Systemization ===
In Buddhism, practice and progress along the spiritual path happens when one follows the system of buddhist practice. Any religion which follows (parts of) the fundamentals of this system has, according to the teachings of Buddha, good aspects to the extent it accords with this system. Any religion which goes against (parts of) the fundamentals of this system, includes bad aspects too. Any religion which does not teach certain parts of this system, is not because of this a 'bad' religion; it just lacks those teachings and is to that extent incomplete.
 
''A question by the monk Subhadda to the Buddha'': "O Gotama, there are [[Samana]]s and [[Brahmin|Brahmanas]] (religious leaders) who are leaders of their sects, who are well-esteemed by many people, such as Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, Ajita Kesakambala, Pakudha Kaccayana, Sancaya Belatthaputta and [[Mahavira|Nigantha Nataputta]]. Do all of them have knowledge and understanding as they themselves have declared? Or do all of them have no knowledge and understanding?"<br />
''The reply by Buddha was'': "Subhadda, in whatever teaching is not found the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], neither in it is there found a Samana (priest or holy person) of the first stage ([[Sotapanna]]), nor a Samana of the second stage ([[Sakadagami]]), nor a Samana of the third stage ([[Anagami]]), nor a Samana of the fourth stage ([[Arahant]])".
 
== Religion and other approaches to forming beliefs about the nature of the universe ==
:''Main articles: [[Science]], [[Philosophy]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Esotericism]], [[Mysticism]], [[Spirituality]], [[Mythology]]''
 
[[Human]]s have many different methods which attempt to answer fundamental questions about the nature of the [[universe]] and our place in it ([[cosmology]]). What is reality? How can we know? Who are we? Why we are here? How should we live? What happens after we die? Religion is only one of the methods for trying to answer one or more of these questions. Other methods include [[science]], [[philosophy]], [[metaphysics]], [[esotericism]], and [[mysticism]]. Many people use more than one of these methods.
 
==== Present day religious adherence and trends ====
Christianity is the religion with the largest number of professed adherents, followed by Islam and Hinduism. These statistics show the number of professed adherents of the major world religions. In addition, approximately one billion people do not profess any belief in a religion (which includes [[Humanist]], [[Atheist]], [[Rationalist]] and [[Agnostic]] beliefs) . These figures are necessarily approximate.
 
पङ्क्ति ३१६:
In ranking religious denominations, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] is the largest single denomination within Christianity, [[Sunni Islam]] within Islam, and Vaishnavism within Hinduism. It is difficult to say whether there are more Roman Catholics or Sunnis, as the numbers are roughly equal, and exact counts are impossible.
 
== See also ==
*Attributes of some religions: [[clergy]] &ndash; [[creed]] &ndash; [[cult (religion)|cult]] &ndash; [[dogma]] &ndash; [[orthodoxy]] &ndash; [[priest]]s
*[[Existence of God|Arguments for and against the existence of God]]
*Criticism: [[Criticism of Religion]]
*Entities of some religious worldviews: [[angel]] &ndash; [[animal worship]] &ndash; [[demigod]] &ndash; [[demon]] &ndash; [[devas]] &ndash; [[devil]] &ndash; [[ekam]] &ndash; [[god]] &ndash; [[goddess]] &ndash; [[prophet]] &ndash; [[Sky Father|sky father]] &ndash; [[solar deity]] &ndash; [[spiritual being|spirit]]
*[[Irreligion]]
*Lists: [[list of religious topics]] &ndash; [[Major world religions]] &ndash; [[list of religions]] &ndash; [[list of religious populations]] &ndash; [[list of deities]] &ndash; [[List of people considered to be deities]] &ndash; [[List of religion scholars]]
*Non-religious beliefs: [[agnosticism]] &ndash; [[atheism]] &ndash; [[secularism]] &ndash; [[Secular Humanism]]
*Other elements of some religious worldviews:[[Dharma Yukam]] &ndash; [[afterlife]] &ndash; [[chosen people]] &ndash; [[creation belief]] &ndash; [[End of the world (religion)|end of the world]] &ndash; [[evil]] - [[heaven]] &ndash; [[hell]] &ndash; [[karma]] &ndash; [[miracle]]s &ndash; [[moksha]] &ndash; [[nirvana]] &ndash; [[resurrection]] &ndash; [[revelation]] &ndash; [[soul]] &ndash; [[spiritual possession]] &ndash; [[supernatural]]
*Problematic effects of some religions: [[religious violence]]
*Religious practices: [[divination]] &ndash; [[religious ecstasy|ecstasy]] &ndash; [[exorcism]] &ndash; [[faith]] &ndash; [[magic and religion|magic]] &ndash; [[meditation]] &ndash; [[mysticism]] &ndash; [[prayer]] &ndash; [[repentance]] &ndash; [[sacrifice]] &ndash; [[shunning]] &ndash; [[superstition]] &ndash; [[veneration]] &ndash; [[worship]]
*Practices frowned upon by religions: [[apostasy]] &ndash; [[heresy]] &ndash; [[idolatry]] &ndash; [[sin]]
*Related subjects: [[mythology]] &ndash; [[philosophy of religion]] &ndash; [[theology]] &ndash; [[pseudoreligion]] &ndash; [[angelology]] &ndash; [[demonology]]
*Religious beliefs: [[Christian anarchism|anarchism]] &ndash; [[transtheism]] &ndash; [[deism]] &ndash; [[henotheism]] &ndash; [[maltheism]] &ndash; [[monism]] &ndash; [[monotheism]] &ndash; [[pantheism]] &ndash; [[panentheism]] &ndash; [[polytheism]] &ndash; [[pandeism]] &ndash; [[panendeism]] &ndash; [[polydeism]] &ndash; [[theism]] &ndash; [[mono-originism]]
*Religious organizations: [[cult]] &ndash; [[sect]] &ndash; [[religious denomination|denomination]] &ndash; [[Ecclesia (sociology of religion)|ecclesia]]
*Scholarly approaches to religion: [[anthropology of religion]] &ndash; [[comparative religion]] &ndash; [[psychology of religion]] &ndash; [[sociology of religion]]
*Types of religions: [[ancestor worship]] &ndash; [[civil religion]] &ndash; [[folk religion]] &ndash; [[fundamentalism]] &ndash; [[mystery religion]] &ndash; [[New Age]] &ndash; [[paganism]] &ndash; [[shamanism]] &ndash; [[spirituality]] &ndash; [[totemism]] &ndash; [[animism]]
*[[Religion and social issues]]
*[[Religious freedom]] - freedom of religion ''and'' belief
पङ्क्ति ३३९:
*[[Reports of unusual religious childbirths]]
 
=== Related philosophical stances ===
*[[Balagangadhara]] offers a fundamental rethinking of religion.
*[[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|Dualism (Philosophy of mind)]] - the view that the mental and the physical have a fundamentally different nature as an answer to the [[mind-body problem]].
पङ्क्ति ३४५:
*[[Vitalism]] - the doctrine that life cannot be explained solely by mechanism. Often, the non-material element is referred to as the soul, the "vital spark," or a kind of energy.
 
== Compare with ==
*[[Naturalism (Philosophy)]] - which rejects the validity of explanations or theories making use of entities inaccessible to [[natural science]].
*[[Materialism|Materialism (Philosophy)]] - the view that the only thing that can truly be said to 'exist' is matter; that fundamentally, all things are composed of 'material'. Materialism is typically contrasted with dualism, idealism, and vitalism.
*the [[Scientific method]] - essentially an extremely cautious means of [[model (abstract)|building]] a supportable, [[evidence]]d [[understanding]] of our [[world]].
 
== References ==
*Saint Augustine; ''The Confessions of Saint Augustine'' (John K. Ryan translator); Image (1960), ISBN 0-385-02955-1.
*Descartes, René; ''Meditations on First Philosophy''; Bobbs-Merril (1960), ISBN 0-672-60191-5.
*Durant, Will (& Ariel (uncredited)); ''Our Oriental Heritage''; MJF Books (1997), ISBN 15673101251-56731-012-5.
*Durant, Will (& Ariel (uncredited)); ''Caesar and Christ''; MJF Books (1994), ISBN 15673101411-56731-014-1
*Durant, Will (& Ariel (uncredited)); ''The Age of Faith''; Simon & Schuster (1980), ISBN 06710120020-671-01200-2.
*Gonick, Larry; ''The Cartoon History of the Universe''; Doubleday, vol. 1 (1990) ISBN 0-385-26520-4, vol. II (1994) ISBN#0-385-42093-5, W. W. Norton, vol. III (2002) ISBN 0-393-05184-6.
*Lao Tzu; ''Tao Te Ching'' (Victor H. Mair translator); Bantam (1998).
*''The Holy Bible'', King James Version; New American Library (1974).
*''The Koran''; Penguin (2000), ISBN 01404455870-14-044558-7.
*''The Origin of Live & Death'', African Creation Myths; Heinemann (1966).
*''Poems of Heaven and Hell from Ancient Mesopotamia''; Penguin (1971).
 
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Category:Religion}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3971045.stm What does it mean to be human?] BBC article about Flores Man and religion
* [http://www.history-forum.com/index.php/board,13.0.html History of Religion] related discussions on [http://www.history-forum.com History Forum]
* [http://www.as.ua.edu/rel/studyingreligion.html Studying Religion] - Introduction to the methods and scholars of the academic study of religion
* [http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/retrograde.htm Retrograde Religion ]- Atheist Foundation of Australia Inc
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm#05 A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right] - Marx's original reference to religion as the ''opium of the masses''.
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/var_rel.htm Religous tolerance]
* [http://www.religionfacts.com ReligionFacts.com]
* [http://www.thearda.com American Religion Data Archive]
* [http://www.religion-encyclopedia.com/ Internet Encyclopedia of Religion]
* [http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/religious_criticism.htm A Historical Outline of Modern Religious Criticism in Western Civilization]
* [http://3quarksdaily.blogs.com/3quarksdaily/2005/11/the_rationality.html Re-examining Religion] Short article with new theories of religion, by S. Abbas Raza of [http://3quarksdaily.com ''3 Quarks Daily'']
* [http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/hrj/iss16/gunn.shtml The Complexity of Religion and the Definition of “Religion” in International Law] Harvard Human Rights Journal article from the President and Fellows of Harvard College(2003)
 
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पङ्क्ति ५५०:
[[uz:Din]]
[[vec:Rełijon]]
[[vep:Religii]]
[[vi:Tôn giáo]]
[[vo:Rel]]
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